Abstract
The
purpose of this study was to examine the effects of instructions and expertise
upon cortical mechanisms during a working memory task. Ten professional
pianists and ten musically naïve subjects were instructed to retain for a short
period of time, sequential finger movements viewed previously with the aim of
either replicating them or recognizing them at a later stage. The results
showed that in the 20-30 Hz frequency band and in musically naïve subjects,
functional connectivity was greater within the occipital, parietal, central,
frontal, right and left temporal areas when the subjects were invited to
remember the observed movement in order to replicate it compared to the
recognition condition in which they had to recognize it. In professional
pianists, incomplete connectivity equivalence was detected between the two
conditions. In addition, under the condition for replica, functional
connectivity in musically naïve subjects was greater in the central area
compared to professional pianists. Explanations related to the: (i) level of expertise, (ii) nature of operations involved
during the retention period, and (iii) task demand are discussed.
Keywords:
Working Memory, Movement, Instructions, Expertise, EEG, Functional Connectivity
Calmels,
C. (2010).
Mirror neuron system and action understanding: a literature review. Neurophysiologie Clinique/Clinical Neurophysiology, 403,
166-167 abstract
Abstract
Mirror
neurons (MN) were first discovered in the ventral premotor
cortex of the macaque monkey with single neuron recording (Gallese
et al., 1996; Rizzolatti et al., 1988). These visuomotor neurons demonstrate special characteristics;
they fire when the monkey executes a goal-directed hand movement and also when
it observes this same action executed by another monkey or by a human. Evidence
for the existence of similar neurons in humans has been provided by neurophysiological research and by brain imaging studies.
The existence of the MN system raises questions about its functional role in
humans. It has been suggested that action understanding is mediated by this
system through motor simulation (Iacoboni et al.,
2005). Others have taken the view that action understanding is a mentalizing or an inferential process i.e. ‘a conscious
thinking about the state of minds of other individual’ (Amodio
& Frith, 2006). The goal of this presentation is thus to allow some light
to be shed on these mechanisms. A review of the recent literature showed that
areas outside the MN system were activated when: (i)
the intention of the observed action was hard to understand (Brass et al., 2007);
(ii) the action performed by another individual did not reflect her/his
intention (Buccino et al., 2007); (iii) two people
communicated via manual gestures (Shippers et al., 2009); and (iv) an
extraordinary goal-directed action was performed (de Lange et al., 2008). Uddin et al. (2007) model was suggested to reconcile the
proponents of the simulation and mentalizing theories.
Calmels, C., Hars, M., Jarry, G., & Stam, C.J. (2010).
Non linear EEG synchronization during observations: Effects of instructions and
expertise. Psychophysiology, 47, 799-808.
abstract
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of
instructions and expertise upon neuronal changes during observation of
sequential finger movements. Professional pianists and musically naïve subjects
observed these movements with the aim of either replicating or recognize them
at a later stage. A non-linear measure of functional coupling was used to
investigate EEG activity. In the 10-13 Hz frequency band and in musically naïve
subjects, functional coupling during observation for replica was greater within
central and neighbouring areas than during
observation for recognition. An opposite pattern was found in the 4-8 Hz
frequency band. In the 10-13 Hz band and in areas including the parietal
cortex, functional coupling in musically naïve subjects was greater compared to
professional pianists under observation for replica. Results are discussed in
the light of recent findings from the cognitive and behavioral neuroscience
literature.
Keywords
Observation, Synchronization, Instructions, Expertise, Motor Skills, Musicians,
Electroencephalography
Calmels, C. (2009). Substrats neuronaux
impliqués dans la perception des actions d’autrui. Quels
enjeux pour le milieu sportif?
Intellectica, 52, 29-41. abstract
Abstract
The aim of this presentation was to show that
neuroscience is of interest for the examination of perception in sports.
Applying neuroscience knowledge to sport areas has been discussed and
recommendations have been suggested to facilitate this application.study
was to examine the effects of instructions and expertise upon neuronal
Keywords
Neurosciences, Elite Sport, Perception.
Calmels, C., Jarry,
G., & Stam, C.J. (2009). Changes
in local and distant EEG activities before, during, and after the observation
and execution of sequential finger movements. Neurophysiologie
Clinique/Clinical Neurophysiology., 39, 303-312 abstract
Abstract
The aim of
this study was to consider cortical oscillations at local and distant/large
scale levels during the time course of motor events under both an observation
and an execution condition. For this purpose, local and distant changes in EEG
cortical oscillations were respectively assessed by the Event-Related Desynchronization/Synchronization technique and the
Synchronization Likelihood technique. Data collected prior to, during, and
after observation and execution of complex sequential finger movements were
used to investigate these changes. EEGs were recorded from 19 active sites
across the cortex of ten subjects. Sensorimotor
activity was examined in alpha frequency bands. Results revealed that local
power changes and global interregional synchronizations were two distinct
phenomena, which occurred simultaneously and displayed different spatiotemporal
patterns. These findings of this study demonstrate the
complementary character of the two analysis techniques. Results are discussed
in light of the recent findings from the cognitive and behavioural neuroscience
literature.
Keywords:
alpha bands, electroencephalography, local and distant EEG activities,
observation/execution, sensorimotor areas.
Arripe-Longueville, F. (d’), Hars, M., Debois, N., & Calmels, C. (2009). Perceived development of psychological characteristics
in male and female elite gymnasts. International Journal of Sport Psychology,40, 424-455.
Abstract
This study examined the perceived development of
psychological characteristics in male and female elite gymnasts. Fourteen
participants (seven females and seven males) were engaged in individual
semi-structured interviews, which were subjected to an inductive-deductive
analysis procedure. Results revealed the main psychological characteristics
perceived to be developed by all the participants pertained to achievement
motivation, performance enhancement cognitive skills (e.g., focusing, imagery),
and affective and psychosomatic skills (e.g., ability to deal with anxiety;
relaxation). Although all the participants perceived that their psychological
characteristics were influenced by different sources (e.g., social sport
environment; family; sport process) and through a variety of methods (e.g.,
social support; unpleasant social interactions; competitive experiences), some
gender differences were suggested. Family influences were perceived as constant
among females, whilst the role of competitive experiences was perceived as
predominant amongst males. Results are discussed in the context of previous
psychological development literature and theories of gender development.
Keywords
Psychological Development, Elite Sport, Social Influences, Gender
Calmels, C., Hars, M., Holmes, P., Jarry, G., & Stam, C.J. (2008).
Non-linear EEG synchronization during observation and
execution of simple and complex sequential finger movements. Experimental Brain Research, 190, 389-400.
Abstract
The main aim of this study was to examine the temporal
aspects of neuronal changes during the observation and execution of simple and
complex tasks to gain a greater understanding of the mirror neuron system’s
involvement in complex motor tasks. Eleven right-handed subjects observed
simple and complex finger movement sequences. Electroencephalograms were
recorded from 19 electrodes. Activity was considered in four frequency bands
(8-10Hz, 10-13Hz, 13-20Hz, and 20-30Hz) using a new measure, synchronization
likelihood. The results show that motor tasks of different levels of complexity
did not have a significant influence on cortical synchronization. The results
also provide additional indirect evidence for mirror neuron activity associated
with intransitive tasks. Data are discussed in the light of recent findings
from the cognitive and behavioral neuroscience literature.
Keywords
Action Observation, Synchronization, Mirror Neurons, Movement Complexity,
Electroencephalography
Holmes,
P., & Calmels, C. (2008).
A neuroscientific review of imagery
and observation use in sport. Journal of Motor Behavior, 40,433-445.
Abstract
Imagery and observation are multi-componential involving individual difference
characteristics that modify the processes. This paper will propose that both
imagery and observation aim to offer effective routes to access and reinforce
neural networks for skilled performance. The neural isomorphism with overt
behaviors offers a tempting mechanism to explain the beneficial outcomes of the
two processes. However, a number of limitations linked to imagery suggest it
may not be as efficacious as the literature would suggest. Observation-based
approaches are proposed to offer more valid and effective techniques in sport
psychology and motor control.
Keywords
Imagery, Observation, Neuroscience
Hars,
M., & Calmels, C. (2007).
Observation of elite gymnastic performance: Processes and perceived functions
of observation. Psychology of Sport and
Exercise, 8(3), 337-354.
Abstract
Objectives: The purpose of the study was firstly to examine the nature
of the information individuals extract from observations of their own
performance and the reasons they give for choosing this information. Second, we
aimed to investigate how individuals treat observed information and the
strategies they use. Identification of the reasons for the use of each of the
strategies was also discerned.
Method: Ten French female elite gymnasts were invited to “think-aloud”
as they viewed a video sequence of their own performance.
Results: Findings revealed that the gymnasts paid attention mainly to
spatial information and rarely reported kinematics information. The
participants reported four main reasons for observing their own performance: (i) to improve self-assessment; (ii) to increase performance
of technical execution; (iii) to increase imagery; and (iv)
to increase visual perceptions. Gymnasts used different strategies to code the
information, such as imagery, self-talk, imagery associated with self-talk,
observing others and listening to the coach’s feedback. These strategies of
retention were perceived to be a means to improve performance.
Conclusions: The
results are discussed in relation to Bandura’s (1986,
1997) social cognitive theory of observational learning.
Keywords
Observational Learning, Nature of the Information, Strategies of Retention,
Functions, Elite Gymnasts.
Calmels, C., Holmes,
P., Jarry, G., Lévèque,
J-M., Hars, M. & Stam, C.J. (2006). Local cortical activity prior to, and during, observation and
execution of sequential finger movements. Brain Topography, 19(1-2), 77-88.
Abstract
The aim of this study was to provide further evidence
for the existence of a mirror neuron system in humans using
electroencephalography during the observation and execution of
non-object-related movements. Event-related desynchronization
and synchronization (ERD/ERS) were used to characterize brain activity prior
to, and during, observation and execution of a finger movement in four
frequency bands (7-10 Hz, 10-13 Hz, 13-20 HZ, and 20-30 Hz).
Electroencephalograms (EEGs) were recorded from 19 electrode sites in eight
participants.
In all the frequency bands and electrode sites, results revealed that there was no significant differences in EEG cortical activity
between the observation condition and the execution conditions. Comparison of
the two stages of the movement (i.e., pre-movement and movement) in the
observation and execution conditions showed, in most cases, that pre-movement
ERD values were less than movement ERD values. Whilst there was not an identical
match of EEG cortical indices, this study provides further support for the
existence of a mirror neuron system in humans. The incomplete congruence may be
explained by the different behaviors, the nature of the task and factors in the
observed action coded by the mirror system.
Keywords
Electroencephalography, Mirror Neurons, Event-related De/Synchronization,
Non-Object-Related Action
Calmels, C., Holmes,
P., Lopez, E., & Naman, V. (2006).
Investigation of the principle of functional equivalence in the context of
imagery and action execution: A timing paradigm study. Journal of Motor Behavior, 38(5),
339-348.
Abstract
The aim of this study was to consider the functional
equivalence of internal imagery, external imagery and action execution. Sixteen
elite gymnasts imaged and performed a complex gymnastic vault. Ten performers
imaged from an internal perspective and six used an external perspective.
Whilst the results revealed that the time to image the entire motor task was
not significantly different from the time required to physically perform it,
irrespective of the imagery perspective employed, the temporal organization of
the action was different
within the imagery conditions compared to the physical condition. The results
do not provide support for the principle of temporal functional equivalence and
are discussed in the light of recent findings from the cognitive neuroscience
and psychology literature.
Keywords
Principle of Functional Equivalence, Timing Paradigm, Temporal Organization,
Imagery Perspectives, Complex Motor Task
Calmels, C., Holmes,
P., Jarry, G., Hars, M., Lopez, E., Paillard, A., Stam, C.J. (2006).
Variability of EEG synchronization prior to, and during
observation and execution of a sequential finger movement. Human Brain Mapping, 27(3), 251-266.
Abstract
The aim of this study was to test the validity of
mirror neuron activity in humans through analysis of electroencephalographic
(EEG) functional connectivity during an action not directed towards an object.
We investigated changes in EEG inter-channel synchronization prior to, and
during, action execution and also prior to, and during, observation of the same
action. 12 participants observed a simple finger movement sequence. In a second
testing session they physically executed the movement. Electroencephalograms
were recorded from 19 active sites across the cortex. Activity was considered
in four frequency bands (7-10 Hz; 10-13 Hz; 13-20 Hz; and 20-30 Hz) using a new
measure; synchronization likelihood. This technique considers rapid changes in
signal synchronization and spatiotemporal patterns of coherence. The results
revealed no statistically significant difference in synchronization likelihood
between the observation and execution data. We found an increase in
synchronization over a broad frequency range during task processing and suggest
that this may reflect inter-regional cortical coupling of intricately and
hierarchically interconnected networks that are active in a similar way during
both observation and execution of a movement. Whilst EEG may be insensitive to
differences present during the observation and execution of a movement, the
results of the present study shed some light on the general mechanisms of
cognitive integration.
Keywords
Perception, Imitative Behavior, Movement, Electroencephalography, Cortical
Synchronization, Nonlinear Dynamics
Holmes,
P., Collins, D., & Calmels,
C. (2006). Electroencephalographic
functional equivalence during observation of action.
Journal of Sport Sciences, 24(6),
605-616.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the variability
in cortical activation during physical air-rifle shooting and three different
observation conditions. Elite air-rifle shooters performed a 40 shot individual
match. Electroencephalograms were recorded from 11 active sites across the
cortex during the final 6 seconds (3 x 2s epochs) before shot release. Data
collection was repeated whilst shooters watched a large screen video of their
worst shot performance from an internal-visual perspective when seated,
standing and standing holding their rifle. The hypothesised
differences between the three observation conditions and the physical shooting
profile were not shown except at the left anterior temporal site, T5. This
finding suggests that observation of performance cannot be differentiated
clearly by posture or modified through kinetic and haptic
afference and that visual percepts predominate in
observational functional equivalence. However, more functionally equivalent
observation reduced the observation/execution variability over the temporal
areas. Performer debriefs also identified different perceptions of
physiological, psychological and behavioural
functional equivalence associated with the different observation conditions. We
conclude that elite performers’ brains are accessed equally effectively during
different observation conditions irrespective of some of the physical factors
ascribed to the conditions. However, they may require more functionally-matched
conditions to attain greater equivalence in temporal areas.
Keywords
EEG, Observation, Functional Equivalence, Shooting
Fournier,
J., Calmels, C., Durand-Bush, N., & Salmela, J. (2005). Effects of a season-long PST program on gymnastic
performance and on psychological skill development.
International Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology, 3, 59-77.
Abstract
Findings are reported of an evaluation of the effects of a 10 month PST program
on performance and psychological indicators. Ten nationally ranked female
gymnasts (M = 12 years old) followed a psychological skills training (PST)
program for half an hour per week. The five-step intervention consisted of
relaxation, self-talk, goal setting, focusing, and visualization. Performance
scores were obtained using scores and rankings during two consecutive
competitive seasons. The OMSAT-3 © was used to individually assess 11
psychological indicators (Durand-Bush, 1995). Data were recorded before
the intervention and after every step of the intervention, during the course of
the competitive seasons. Repeated ANOVAs as well as a practical assessment of
the data were completed. The PST program appeared to be most effective on
imagery skills, relaxation, activation, focusing, and
refocusing. On three events out of four (bars, beam, floor), the 10 gymnasts
progressed 5% more than 11 other gymnasts who did not follow this PST program.
Keywords
Psychological Skill Training, Gymnasts, Mental Practice, Performance, Mental
Intervention
Calmels, C., Berthoumieux,
C., & Arripe-Longueville, F. (d’). (2004.). Effects of an imagery training program on
selective attention of national softball players.
The Sport Psychologist, 18, 272-296.
Abstract
This study examined the effectiveness of an imagery
training program in improving national softball players’ selective attention. A
multiple-baseline design across individuals was used. There were four
participants. One remained at baseline, while the other three spent 10 min a
day practising an audio-taped imagery program
composed of 28 sessions. Measures of selective attention were collected via a
base-ball/softball batting specific version stemming from Nideffer’s
(1976) Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style
(TAIS). The results demonstrated that the imagery training program generally
enhanced the ability of softball players to integrate external stimuli without
being overloaded with them and to narrow attention. Results were discussed in
relation to the usefulness of multiple-baseline designs for investigating
individual differences among elite athletes. Practical pedagogical
considerations for coaching are proposed.
Keywords
Selective Attention, Imagery, Multiple-Baseline Design, Softball
Calmels, C., Holmes, P., Berthoumieux, C., & Singer, R.S. (2004).
Development of movement imagery vividness
through a structured intervention in softball. Journal of Sport Behavior, 27(4),
307-323.
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to examine the
effect of a structured imagery intervention on self-reported vividness of
movement imagery in four female national softball players. A multiple-baseline
design across individuals was employed. Participants spent 10 minutes, four or
five times per week, practicing an audio-taped imagery program, which was
consisted of 28 sessions. Measures of imagery vividness were obtained from the
Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire during the baseline and treatment
phases. Results showed significant improvements in vividness scores on both the
external and internal imagery perspective scales, with increases in the range
of 15.8 % to 32.3 % from the baseline to the treatment phase. The findings are
discussed with regard to individual cases and Lang’s (1979) Bio-informational
Theory.
Keywords
Imagery, Vividness, Softball
Calmels, C., Arripe-Longueville,
F. (d'), Fournier, J. F., Soulard, A. (2003).
Mental skills among elite female gymnasts: An exploration of the
relative influence of mental training and natural learning experiences. International Journal of Sport and Exercise
Psychology, 1, 327-352.
Abstract
The purposes of this qualitative study were, (a) to compare the competitive
strategies developed by national and international female gymnasts through
natural learning experiences, (b) to compare the competitive strategies used by
national gymnasts who benefited from a psychological skills training (PST)
program to those developed by international gymnasts via natural learning
experiences, and (c) to investigate the functions these strategies served in
the two aforementioned cases. Individual in-depth interviews were
conducted with three international and six national gymnasts. Three of
the six national gymnasts followed a PST, whereas the other three did
not. The international gymnasts never benefited from PST neither before
nor during the study. The results indicated that the strategies developed
through natural experiences over time by the international gymnasts were wider
and more elaborated than those of their national counterparts, but akin to
those used by the national gymnasts who had benefited from a PST. The
specific consequences of the characteristics of the international context and
psychological skills training on the strategies gymnasts elaborated were also
highlighted. Results are discussed relative to research on deliberate
practice and sport talent development (Ericsson, Krampe,
& Tesch-Romer, 1993).
Keywords
Competitive Strategies, Elite Gymnasts, Psychological Skills Training, Natural
Learning Experience
Calmels, C., & Fournier, J.
(2001). Study of the duration of physical
and mental execution of gymnastic movement. The Sport Psychologist, 15, 142-150.
Abstract
In this experiment, differences in the temporal
organization of routines in artistic gymnastics executed under mental and
physical conditions were examined. Twelve elite female gymnasts performed their
floor routines mentally, then performed the same
routines physically. On each of three days, the performance was filmed, and the
durations of the mental and actual routines were timed. The results showed that
mental movement times were shorter than physical routine times. It was
concluded that the speed of visualization depends on the situation in which the
gymnasts visualize as well as on the function that the athlete attributes to
the use of imagery. We observed a trend when comparing the different stages of
the relative duration of mental and actual routines. If confirmed, we
hypothesized that the lengthening of relative duration of certain stages under
mental conditions could be linked to the perceived difficulty of the gymnastics
elements.
Calmels, C., & Fournier, J. (1999).
Effets d'un programme d'entraînement mental combiné à une pratique physique sur
la performance en gymnastique et sur le développement de l'imagerie. STAPS, Revue Internationale des Sciences du Sport
et de l'Éducation Physique, 49, 63-72.
Abstract
The goal of this study was to assess the possibility
of enhancing performance and imagery ability thanks to a mental training
program combined with physical training. Two groups of elite female gymnasts
were tested. The first group had to follow a mental training program associated
with physical training, the second group had to follow
physical training combined with a neutral task. Before and after the
experiment, measures of performance and measures of imagery ability were made.
Results showed that effects of mental training associated with physical
training were statistically similar to effects of physical training associated
with a neutral task, except for the beam (superior performances were obtained
by the gymnasts who practise physical training) and
for kinesthetic imagery (superior scores were obtained with the association of
mental and physical programs). The authors wonder about the efficacy of mental
training on balance tasks. These results tend to throw the doubt on the
efficacy of mental training on balance tasks and underpin the importance of
imagery training in the development of the kinaesthetic
modality. However, for the vault, the uneven bars and the floor exercises, the
progress of the first group (mental and physical training) was from 10 to 30%
greater than that of the control group. While this improvement was not
statistically significant, such a difference could be meaningful for the coach,
the director and the gymnasts themselves.
Key words
Imagery, Mental Training, Gymnastics